Section(B)

Cultural Differences in Western and Japanese Decision-making

To talk about problem-solving or decision-making within a national environment means examining many complex cultural forces. It means trying to measure the impact of these forces on contemporary life, and also coming to grips with changes now taking place. In Japan, the most important thing is what organization you work for. This is of extreme importance when trying to analyze the direction-taking or decision-making process. At the least, it explains the greater job stability in Japan, in contrast to the great job mobility in America.

While we differ in many ways, such differences are neither superior nor inferior to each other. A particular pattern of management behavior develops from a complex mixture of unique cultural factors — and will only work within a given culture. Let me try to describe three or four characteristics of the Japanese environment that in some way affect decision-making or direction-taking and problem-solving. These characteristics are related to each other.

First, in any approach to a problem and in any negotiations in Japan, there is the "you to you" approach, as distinguished from the Western "I to you" approach. The difference is this: in "I to you", both sides present their arguments openly from their own point of view — they state what they want and what they expect to get. A confrontation ituation is thereby set up, and Westerners are very skillful in dealing with this. The "you to you" approach practiced in Japan is based on each side — automatically and often unconsciously — trying to understand the other person's point of view. Thus, the direction of the meeting is a mutual attempt to reduce confrontation and achieve harmony.

A second characteristic is based on "consensus opinion" and "bottom-up direction". In Japan great consideration is given to the thoughts and opinions of everyone at all levels. This is true of both private enterprises and government ministries. In Japan there is a drive for unity within the group — whether it is family, company, or Parliament. The difference is that Western style decision-making proceeds mostly from top management and often does not consult middle management or the worker while in Japan, ideas can be created at the lowest levels, travel upward through an organization and have an impact on the eventual decision. This is "bottom up". There is also a characteristic style of communication in Japan that is different from the Western way.

The Japanese business person works to achieve harmony, even if the deal falls through, and will spend whatever time is necessary to determine a "you to you" approach, communicating personal views only indirectly and delicately. This places time in a different perspective. In Japan the Western deadline approach is secondary to a thorough job. Owing to this difference in emphasis, the Japanese are thorough in their meetings as well as in their production. Thus Americans are often frustrated by the many successive meetings in many Japanese businesses. But where the American is pressing for a specific decision, the Japanese is trying to devise a rather broad direction. On the other hand, once a given agreement is made, it is the Japanese who sometimes wonder at the slow pace in which Westerners implement the decision. The Japanese are eager to move forward and
Westerners, perhaps, lag behind as they take the time for in-depth planning.

Now, while Japan's industry and technology are highly developed, they have not replaced the fundamental force of human energy and motivation. By that I mean that the Japanese take great pride in doing a job well and getting it done no matter how much time is required. There is a commitment and sense of responsibility which have not yet been discarded in this age of machines. In my field — finance and securities — I am often asked by Westerners how Nomura Securities has managed to escape the paper traffic jam that American firms have faced. We, too, have had that problem. The Tokyo Stock Exchange often has between 200 and 300 million transactions a day. This volume is many times more than that of the New York Stock Exchange. How can it be feasible to handle this load?

First, we have very sophisticated computers. Second, and most important, the operational personnel responsible for processing all these transactions stay and stay until the job is done. Perhaps in 20 years — or sooner — they will be more Westernized and insist on going home at five o'clock. But today, still, most insist on staying until the job is done. There is a sincere concern for quality. This willingness to help in a pinch is an important aspect of Japanese problem-solving, and you find it at every level. Some years ago, the Matsushita company was having a very bad time. Among the many measures taken, Mr. Matsushita, the founder and then chairman, became the manager of the sales department.

Also, when we at Nomura converted to computers about five years ago, the new system eliminated the jobs of 700 people. We did not dismiss these people; rather, we converted them to securities sales people and some of these are now our leading sales people. Provided there is intelligence and a willingness to exert yourself, there is a place within the company to try and to succeed. In Japan, a person's capabilities are not forced into an inflexible area. And we feel the company owes a worker something for loyalty and commitment.

Words: 900

New Words

　complex a. 1.复合的，复杂的 2.难以理解的，复杂的
　grip n. 1.控制，支配 2.紧握，抓牢 vt 1.握紧，抓牢 2.吸引……的注意力或想像力等
　extreme a. 1.最高限度的，极度的 2.尽可能远的；遥远的 n. 极端，过分
　analyze vt. 分析，细查
▲stability n. 稳定，稳固
　mobile a. 活动的，易于移动的，流动的
　mobility n. 流动性，移动性，易变性
　differ vi. 1.不同，有异 2.（在意见方面）发生分歧
　superior a. 1.优于，强于 2.优良的，卓越的 3.（在职位、地位方面）较高的 n. 上级，上司
　inferior a. 级别低的，社会地位低的；次要的，次等的 n. 下级，下属
　negotiate v. 谈判，磋商
　negotiation n. 商议，谈判，洽谈
　thereby ad. 因此，从而
　harmony n. 和谐，融洽，和睦，一致
▲consensus n. 共同看法，（意见等的）一致
　consideration n. 1.考虑，思考 2.体谅，照顾
　enterprise n. 1.企业单位，商业公司 2.（艰巨的）事业，计划
　ministry n. (政府的)部
　unity n. 和睦，协调，团结，统一
　parliament n. 议会，国会
　consult vt. 1.请教，咨询，找……商量 2.查阅，查看 vi. 交换意见，商议
　delicate a. 1.巧妙的，需技巧的，敏感的 2.易损的，娇嫩的
　delicately ad. 巧妙地，细致地
　owing a. 应付的，未付的
　successive a. 继续的，连续的
　lag vi. 走得慢，落后 n. 时间间隔；滞后
　fundamental a. 基本的，基础的，主要的 n. 基本原则，基本法则
　discard vt. 丢弃，抛弃
▲transaction n. 交易，业务
　volume n. 1.量，份量，额 2.（书的）卷，册 3.音量，响度 4.体积，容积，容量
　feasible a. 可行的，可能的，行得通的
　sophisticated a. 1.复杂的，尖端的 2.世故的，老练的，精通的
　operational a. 1.操作(上)的；经营的 2.即可使用的，即可行动的
　sincere a. 真诚的，诚实的
　pinch n. 1.捏，掐，拧 2.一撮，微量 v. 捏，掐，拧
　aspect n. 部分，方面
　dismiss vt. 1.解雇，开除 2.放弃（想法、感情等），不再考虑 3.解散，遣散
　provided conj. 如果，假若
　exert vt. 1.努力，用力，尽力 2.运用（能力或技巧），发挥
　flexible a. 1.灵活的，可变通的，可适应的 2.易弯曲的，柔韧的
　inflexible a. 不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的
　loyalty n. 忠诚，忠心

Phrases and Expressions

　come to grips with 着手解决(问题)或对付(挑战）
　work for 为... ...工作，受雇于... ...
　in contrast to 对比，比照
　in some way 在某种意义上；有一点，有些
　be related to 与... ...相关，与... ...有联系
　distinguish from 与... ...相区别
　set up 造成，产生
　fall through 失败，成为泡影
　owing to 因为，由于
　press for 反复请求，紧急要求
　wonder at 对... ...感到惊讶，惊叹
　lag behind 走得慢，落后
　in a pinch 必要时
　exert oneself 努力

Proper Names

　Nomura Securities 野村证券
　Tokyo Stock Exchange 东京证券交易所
　New York Stock Exchange 纽约证券交易所
　Matsushita (company) 松下（公司）
　Matsushita 松下幸之助（松下公司创始人）

    日本与西方决策方式中的文化差异
    以国家为背景探讨解决问题或做出决策的方式就意味着研究许多复杂的文化因素。 它意味着试图评估这些因素对现代生活的影响，也意味着把握目前正在发生的变化。
    在日本，最重要的是你为什么单位工作。 在对其取向或决策过程进行分析时，这一点尤为重要。 至少，它说明了美国的工作流动性大和相比而言日本的工作稳定性极高的原因。
    尽管我们在许多方面存在差异，但这些差异并无优劣之分。 某一特定的管理行为模式，是由其独特的文化因素复合发展而成的——因而仅在一定的文化中起作用。
    让我来描述一下日本民族的三四个文化背景特征，它们以某种方式影响着决策或者取向，以及解决问题的方式。 这些特征是相互联系的。
    首先，在日本，任何解决问题的方法或任何谈判都体现着"你对你"的方式，这与西方"我对你"的方式截然不同。 差别在于：在"我对你"的方式中，双方都坦率地从自己的观点出发提出主张——他们说出自己想要什么，希望得到什么。 如此一来就形成了对峙的局面，而西方人十分善于应付对峙局面。
    日本人所采用的"你对你"的方式则建立在各方——自然而然地并常常是下意识地——力图理解对方观点的基础之上。 因此，会晤所向是双方共同努力减少对峙，谋求和谐。
    第二个特点的基础是"一致共识"及"由下而上"。 在日本，更多的是对各阶层所有人员的想法和意见都予以认真考虑。 无论是私人企业还是政府部门均是如此。 在日本，人们力求团体的统一，不论这团体是家庭、公司还是国会。
    差别在于，西方式的决策多半源自高层管理人员，通常不征求中层管理人员或员工的意见；而在日本，最底层的人员也能提出想法，然后通过组织上传，对最后的决策产生影响。 此谓"由下而上"。
    日本特有的交流方式也与西方的不同。
    即使生意没做成，日本商人也力求和睦相处，愿花费必要的时间来确立"你对你"的交流方式，仅仅间接而巧妙地交换个人意见。
    这就产生了对时间的不同见解。 在日本，有始有终的工作比西方人对工作采取最后期限的态度更受推崇。 由于这种重点的不同，日本人不仅在生产上讲求有始有终，而且开会也讲求有始有终。 因此，美国人对许多日本公司繁多的会议感到厌烦。 但美国人总是急于做出具体决策，而日本人却试着制定一个大方向。
    另一方面，一旦签署了某个协议，却常常是日本人惊讶于西方人履行协议时的拖沓。 日本人热情十足地往前走，而西方人因需要时间作详细计划，则可能落后。
    现在，虽然日本的工业和技术得到了高度发展，但它们并不能取代人类精力和动机的根本力量。 我这么说的意思是，日本人对于能把一项工作做好，对于能完成这项工作，无论耗时多少，都会感到无比自豪。 这里面有承诺和责任感，在这个机器时代里，它们仍然没有被抛弃。
    在我的工作领域——金融和证券业，常有西方人问我，野村证券公司是如何避免美国公司所面临的交易单流通堵塞的。 我们也碰到过这个难题。 东京证交所每天通常有2-3亿笔交易。 这个交易额是纽约证交所的许多倍。 怎样才能处理好这么巨大的数额呢？
    第一，我们拥有极为先进的计算机。 第二，也是最重要的，负责处理这些交易的操作人员一直待到工作结束。 也许20年后，或许用不了这么久，他们就会更加西方化，会坚持到五点就下班回家。 但在今天，大多数人依然坚持待到工作完成。 这是对质量的真正关心。
    "紧要关头，鼎力相助"是日本人处理问题时的一个重要方面，存在于日本社会的各个阶层。 几年前，松下公司遇到难关。 在他们所采取的措施当中，有一项就是松下先生——公司的创始人和当时的董事长——调任销售部经理。
    同样，当我们野村证券公司五年前改用电脑时，新系统使700名员工失去了原来的工作。 但我们并没有解雇他们；相反，我们将他们转为证券销售人员，其中有些如今成了这方面的骨干。 只要有智慧，只要肯努力，就可以在公司里获得奋斗和成功之地。 在日本，一个人的才能不会被局限于一个固定的领域。 我们认为，对于员工们的尽信尽责，公司应予以回报。